Saturday, February 10, 2007
Confess and be done with it
Almost everyone accused of a crime in Japan signs a confession, guilty or not

A TAXI driver in Toyama prefecture is arrested for rape and attempted rape, confesses to both crimes, is convicted after a brief trial and serves his three years in prison. Meanwhile, another man, arrested on rape charges, also confesses to the two crimes the first man was convicted for. He, too, goes to jail and serves his time. Is this a story by Jorge Luis Borges, a case of trumped-up charges from the annals of Stalinist Russia, a trick question in a Cambridge tripos? None of the above. It is a recent instance, and not an uncommon one, of the Japanese judicial system at work.
On January 26th Jinen Nagase, Japan's justice minister, apologised for the wrongful arrest of the taxi driver and declared that an investigation would take place. After all, the suspect had an alibi, evidence that he could not have committed the crime and had denied vociferously having done so. But after the third day in detention without access to the outside world, he was persuaded to sign a confession.
With too many instances of wrongful arrest and conviction, few expect anything to come from the justice ministry's investigation. But the spotlight has begun to shine on the practices of police interrogation as well as on the court's presumption of guilt. More and more innocent victims of Japan's judicial zeal are going public with grim accounts of their experiences at the hands of the police and the court system.
Now a new film about wrongful arrest by one of Japan's most respected directors, Masayuki Suo, has just opened to critical acclaim. The movie, entitled “I Just Didn't Do It”, is based on a true story about a young man who was accused of molesting a schoolgirl on a crowded train—and refused adamantly to sign a confession. Thanks to support from friends and family, the real-life victim finally won a retrial after two years of protesting his innocence, and is today a free man.
The film, which was premièred in America and Britain before opening in Japan, depicts how suspects, whether guilty or innocent, are brutalised by the Japanese police, and how the judges side with the prosecutors. Mr Suo argues that suspects are presumed guilty until proven innocent, and that the odds are stacked massively against them being so proven.
The statistics would seem to bear him out. Japan is unique among democratic countries in that confessions are obtained from 95% of all people arrested, and that its courts convict 99.9% of all the suspects brought before them. Prosecutors are ashamed of being involved in an acquittal and fear that losing a case will destroy their careers. Judges get promotion for the speed with which they process their case-loads. And juries do not exist, though there is talk of introducing a watered-down system called saiban-in for open-and-shut cases. Apparently, members of the public are not to be trusted with cases that might involve special knowledge. Those will still be heard and ruled on—as are all cases in Japan today—by judges alone.
Despite Article 38 of the Japanese constitution, which guarantees an accused person's right to remain silent, the police and the prosecutors put maximum emphasis on obtaining a confession rather than building a case based on evidence. The official view is that confession is an essential first step in rehabilitating offenders. Japanese judges tend to hand down lighter sentences when confessions are accompanied by demonstrations of remorse. Even more important, prosecutors have the right to ask for lenient sentences when the accused has been especially co-operative.
It is how the police obtain these confessions that troubles human-rights activists. A suspect can be held for 48 hours without legal counsel or contact with the outside world. After that, he or she is turned over to the public prosecutor for another 24 hours of grilling. A judge can then grant a further ten days of detention, which can be renewed for another ten days.
Japan's constitution also states that confessions obtained under compulsion, torture or threat, or after prolonged periods of detention, cannot be admitted as evidence. Yet threats and even torture are reckoned to be used widely in detention centres—especially as interrogators are not required to record their interviews. Accidental death during custody happens suspiciously often. Facing up to a possible 23 days of continuous browbeating, or worse, could persuade many wrongfully arrested people to accept their fate and sign a confession as the quickest way to put the whole sorry mess behind them.
Feb 8th 2007
TOKYOFrom The Economist print edition
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Wednesday, January 31, 2007
請不要叫他們「神童」
2007年初,31歲的張世明匆匆向世界告別,讓很多人惋惜;他用他年輕的生命,給我國社會(至少是華社)帶來了一次「震撼教育」。
關于他的離開以及他家人對媒體的態度,大家想著、談著,言談中充滿類似的假設句:「如果怎樣怎樣,就不會怎樣怎樣」;連副部長級的人物也說,國家或社會應該設立一個機制來幫助這些孩子。言下之意,目前「國家或社會」有關的機制是不足的。
沒有人會反對副部長的「機制論」。但是,「機制」具體指的是什么?做法如何?究竟是「國家」還是「社會」有權力、責任和資源設置所謂的「機制」?誰是「社會」?家長嗎?學校嗎?政府嗎?媒體嗎?公眾
嗎?都是?抑或,都不是?副部長沒說清楚。
當媒體進行採訪工作受阻后,輿論的焦點轉向家屬的態度(該不該那樣對待媒體)和媒體的專業倫理(該
不該追蹤報道);負責我國教育事務的副部長也以不想打擾張家為由,至今沒有對這個事件發表過代表教育部
的談話。彷彿,這只是一則比較轟動的社會新聞,無關教育部門。
生命消亡卻無法撼動教育制度
當問題被歸類為家屬的問題、媒體的問題和籠統的「社會」問題后,國家教育部門以及其代表者──受人民所托、掌握教育決策權、行政權的政府和其代表們──繼續維持著紋風不動的姿態。一個不凡生命的消亡看來仍無法撼動他們以及我國的教育制度。
我們期待副部長級人物的見解水平和一般群眾是不同的,他們的社會責任也不僅僅是對事情發表評論和做出結論,而是在看到問題之后,通過他們的職權,有所行動,使一些現存的制度發生改變──例如檢討目前我國目前提供給特殊學生的教育,建制一個符合這些特殊學生的教育制度。
如果說「社會」指的是社會大眾的話,建立「機制」的責任其實在政府而不在社會大眾。而社會大眾能做和應做的則是檢討我們自己對資賦優異學生和資優教育的認識與觀念。「神童」這一名詞本身,就存在著不當之處。「神」,帶有「屬于另一個世界的」、「超越我們的認知範圍的」、「無法解釋或用理性來理解的」等等的意味,所以我們把張世明異于常人的天賦,視為「神跡」。當「神跡」降世時,我們欣喜若狂,當「神跡」消失,我們就悵然若失。甚至,有人宿命地認定,「神童」的壽命是冥冥中早已注定的,早夭是逃不過的「劫」或「天意」。
迷信色彩遮蔽對事情的理解
這樣的觀念,使得我們對事情的理解被神秘甚至迷信的色彩遮蔽。當我們無法比較正確和理性認識和看待整個事件時,當對問題的討論僅限于悲歎、惋惜或指責時,我們錯失的,恐怕不只是一個寶貴的生命,還包括一個促成我們更新教育觀念、促成現有的教育制度產生變化的機會。
張世明不是「神」,他是和你我一樣,屬于我們活著的這個世界的,他的天賦,是找得到科學性的解釋的,適合他的教育,也是存在著的。我們可稱這些孩子為「資賦優異生」(台灣的用詞;以下簡稱「資優生」)、或「超常生」,(中國大陸的用詞;即「智力超出常態的學生」),但應避免稱之為「神童」,(即使非這樣用不可,也應該加個引號)。
智力超常的孩子有特殊的學習和成長需要,他們需要的是一種專門的教育,所以資優教育屬于特殊教育的範疇,而且,在許多國家特殊教育是有法律條規可循的。換句話說,提供給資優孩子的教育,就像義務教育一樣,是一種「政府行為」,它需要政府制訂法規,立法保障、支持、加強,提供資源;政府對這些少數的特殊孩子的重視,應不遜于對一般孩童的關注。對資優教育的重視,和對殘障兒童的教育、普通兒童的教育一樣,是體現和落實教育機會公平的精神的一種方式。
台灣特殊教育系統可資參考
例如,台灣的特殊教育法明示「對資賦優異學生應給予適性教育之機會」,「惟有提供資優學生潛能開發、適性發展的教育,落實因材施教的理念,才能真正符合教育機會均等之精義」。台灣資優教育的對象,包括一般智能優異(在記憶、理解、分析、綜合、推理、評鑒等方面比同齡孩子具有卓越潛能或傑出表現者)、學術性向優異(在語文、數學、社會科學、自然科學等學科領域比同齡孩子具有卓越潛能或傑出表現者)、藝術才能優異、創造才能優異、領導才能優異和其他特殊才能優異這幾類。無論是哪一類的資優,其鑒定程序是十分周密嚴謹的,除了看其智力測驗的結果,還得要有專家學者的觀察和推薦,學生可能還須附上參加有關競賽、研習活動的成果或獎項供審查,整個過程歷經篩選、轉介、醫學診斷、評量、安置、教學與評鑒等等步驟。
※作者:黃禎玉
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Monday, November 27, 2006
The racial divide widens in Malaysia
Malaysia's government regularly cautions its constituents that open and honest dialogue of the "sensitive" subject of race is strictly off limits.
Then comes along the week-long United Malays National Organization (UMNO) annual assembly, at which Muslim Malay party leaders warn the country's minority Chinese and Indians that questioning the special status of Islam and Malays in society will be met with violent doom.
Fists tremble. Daggers are brandished. Party delegates thunder, "Long live the Malays." The very predictability of the chest-thumping is what UMNO members use to rationalize it: "Although some sides were a bit extreme [this year]," said UMNO vice president Muhyiddin Yassin, "it is quite normal to voice feelings during the assembly."
Yet it would be a mistake to confuse this year's assembly with previous party congresses. The Islamic and racist zeal was unmistakably more incessant and explicit, and the proceedings were considerably less tempered with calls for national unity. Remarks by Hasnoor Hussein, an UMNO delegate from Malacca, were typical: "UMNO is willing to risk lives and bathe in blood to defend the race and religion. Don't play with fire. If they [other races] mess with our rights, we will mess with theirs."
What troubles many Malaysians about UMNO's lack of restraint is that it comes at a time when the country appears more racially polarized than it's been in decades. Malaysia's mix of ethnic Malays, Indians and Chinese has long been resentful of each other and willfully segregate themselves. Those resentments exploded into full-blown race riots in 1969, when ethnic Malays attacked and killed scores of ethnic Chinese.
These days, some 90% of Chinese students attend private Mandarin-language schools. Meanwhile, most Malays attend public schools and most Indians Tamil-language institutions of learning. Two years ago the government initiated a public service program to improve race relations by choosing 18-year-olds to participate in a military style camp. That scheme has been dogged by reports of race-related infighting, however.
Unequal rights
In the face of a creeping Islamization, non-Malays and social activists have recently pressured Malaysia's UMNO leadership to grant equal rights to all of the country's citizens regardless of race or religion - as is guaranteed under the federal constitution.
In particular, they have also become more vocal in questioning a controversial affirmative action program intended to help Muslim Malays catch up economically with the ethnic Chinese, who comprise 60% and 25% of the population respectively.
Started in 1971, the so-called New Economic Policy (NEP) was originally intended to last 20 years but has since been extended indefinitely. That's because, according to the government, its target of 30% Malay ownership of the country's total corporate equity still has not been achieved. According to official statistics, that percentage now hovers around 18%. Yet a study conducted by an independent academic last month contested that figure by claiming that ethnic Malay total equity ownership could already be as high as 45%.
The push for more democracy in authoritarian Malaysia leaves its ethnic Chinese and Indian minority groups particularly vulnerable - a fact reflected in the racial bashing at this year's UMNO assembly. At the same time, UMNO's preoccupation with racial politics raises growing doubts about its ability to lead the country forward faced with the challenge of China's economic emergence. The party leadership has openly acknowledged the need for Malaysia to change course if it is to remain competitive with its fast-rising neighbors.
Economic growth slowed from 7.2% in 2004 to 5.2% last year, while foreign investment dropped 15% to $3.9 billion. Prime Minister Abdullah Badawi has promoted his concept of Islam Hadhari, or Civilizational Islam, a modernist interpretation of the faith that stresses moderation and technological and economic competitiveness. In that direction, his party has also introduced plans to transform Malaysia into a regional information technology, agricultural and biotech hub.
"We need an economic transformation," Abdullah said in his opening address at the UMNO assembly. Yet tight curbs on personal freedoms, implemented to curb racial tensions, have hindered the open inquiry and innovative spirit necessary to achieve Abdullah's vision. The next phase of economic development will require coincident social transformation, reforms the current race-obsessed political leadership is reluctant to implement.
Past tense progressive
Oddly, UMNO was once a progressive party, championing what seemed a viable vision to improve equity among the races. Even into the 1990s, under the iron-fisted leadership of Mahathir Mohamad, UMNO looked primed to lead Malaysia toward developed country status. The shimmering steel and glass that spangle Kuala Lumpur's skyline are remnants of that now fading vision.
But the plan went awry as UMNO became politically entrenched in power. Meanwhile, Malaysia's social development and technical know-how has not kept pace with its infrastructural achievements. A common concession in Malaysia, even among its own leadership, is that the country has first world infrastructure but a Third World mentality. Now, that dubious distinction is becoming increasingly obvious to outsiders.
The country's leadership must take much of the blame. UMNO has clung to old solutions, such as the NEP, to fix new problems. Put another way, UMNO, which has ruled Malaysia for four-plus decades through a coalition of other race-based parties, has become bitter, cynical and defensive - a party that is emphasizing preservation at the expense of progress.
Even younger UMNO members, once portrayed as idealistic, urbane and liberal, have quickly come to resemble the party's conservative old guard. And now they often represent the front edge of the party's increasing racist angst. For instance, Abdullah's Oxford-educated son-in-law, Khairy Jamaluddin, who is coincidentally the deputy chief of UMNO's youth wing, warned in September that Chinese political groups would try to take advantage of any split inside UMNO.
When pressured to apologize, according to media reports, the 31-year-old said, "What is there to apologize for? ... I am only defending my race." At the annual assembly, meanwhile, UMNO youth chief Hishammudin Hussein urged the government to reject proposals for an inter-faith commission intended to foster better understanding among Malaysia's various religious groups.
He brandished a Malay dagger, known locally as a keris, when speaking. Some delegates, it seemed, urged him to go further. "Datuk Hisham has unsheathed his keris, waved his keris, kissed his keris. We want to ask Datuk Hisham, when is he going to use it?" said UMNO Perlis delegate Hashim Suboh.
Non-Malays are seeking to exploit the fiery tone of the UMNO assembly to their own political advantage. Liow Tiong Lai, youth chief of the Barisan Nasional component of the Malaysian Chinese Association, said the day that the assembly wrapped up, "All of us are Malaysians in this multiracial country and hatred must not exist. Instead, we must find strength in diversity. We must inculcate love and unity among the races in order to overcome obstacles together."
Malays and UMNO party members will question the sincerity of such remarks, and not without reason. Following UMNO's example, all of Malaysia's major political parties are explicitly race-based, and all have been known to play the race card to shore up their support bases. But only UMNO has the weight of an assembly that has incited anger, mistrust and ridicule of other races.
This year's assembly could mark a dangerous turning point for a country that not long ago was often applauded internationally as a model moderate Islamic nation for its seeming religious tolerance and clear economic achievements. Nowadays, it's altogether unclear if a racially charged UMNO can even manage to maintain short-term social and political stability.
Ioannis Gatsiounis, a New York native, is a Malaysia-based writer.
By Ioannis GatsiounisAsia Times Online
2006-11-23
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Monday, October 09, 2006
馬哈迪與司法獨立
前首相馬哈迪醫生有一段舉世聞名的談話, 表達他對執政府與司法系統之關係的態度,這些 話之所以重要,當然因為說這些話時他是一國之 政府首長,而他當時正在與國內的司法系統發生 糾紛,衍伸來說,他的態度更反映了許多實行三 權分立民主政制國家所可能面對的執政與司法兩 個系統權力嚴重失衡的困境。
馬哈迪當時接受《時代週刊》專訪,其中一 個課題是由最近一項高庭判例引起,馬哈迪的談 話是一貫的老氣橫秋;他說:
「司法系統對我們說,『雖然你們為了某 個宗旨通過一項法律,我們認為你的宗旨是錯 的,我們要做出我們自己的詮釋。』如果我們不 同意,法庭會說,『我們要詮釋你的不同意。』
如果我們遷就,我們就會喪失立法權,我們明 確知道我們要做什么,我們一做了,我們(所做 的)又會被詮釋成另一副模樣,而我們卻沒有依 我們的方式詮釋的途徑。如果我們發現某個法庭 總是在它的詮釋裡把我們拋棄,如果它的詮釋跟 我們立法的初意相違悖,那么我們就得設想一個 辦法產造出一套只能依照我們的意願來詮釋的法 律。」(1986年11月24日,《時代週刊》)
馬哈迪口中的我們是指執政府,他們則是指 法庭及整個司法系統。你如果仔細閱讀這段話的 最后一句,就可以窺探到「馬哈迪主義」的其中 一綹內容,那就是執政權凌駕和宰制司法系統, 立法系統(國會兩院)更無論矣。若要說得露骨 一點,可以說在馬哈迪的政治哲學裡,三權分立 原則是不重要的。
馬哈迪是在怎樣的背景下對美國記者說 這一席話?在此之前的9月26日(1986年), 移民局局長發出一紙通令, 在1963年移民條 例下吊銷《亞洲華爾街日報》通訊員伯鐵爾生 (J.P.Berthelsen) 的入境工作簽證,其簽證到 11月2日才滿期,但移民局要他即刻離境,而這家 在香港印行(其馬來西亞版通過衛星傳版技術在 吉隆坡印刷是很多年之后的事)的美資報紙在此 之前也已被禁止入境發行。(當年上台約五年的 馬哈迪為何如此敵視這份保守派報紙呢?我給你 一個提示:這家報紙的強項是財經與國際政治新 聞。)
伯鐵爾生入稟高庭要求發出制止令 (Certiorari,拉丁文,字義為使更明確,法 律界慣常以此指稱將一訟案移往較高級法庭審理 的令狀),撤銷移民局取消其工作簽證的通令。 吉隆坡高庭拒絕其請求,他遂向最高法庭(當 年此國內終審庭尚未正名為聯邦法院)上訴,宣 讀判詞的最高法庭法官阿都卡迪(Abdoolcader SCJ)引用「自然公正」(Natural Justice) 原則, 表示入稟人如果預期能居留到簽證到 期才離境,此預期是合理合法的(legitimate expectation),並基于此而指示發出制止令。
這筆賬太重要了,馬哈迪是一盤棋可以下30 年的「馬基維利派大師」,(同一時期還有一宗 相關的案件,林吉祥舉《時代週刊》為證控告馬 哈迪藐視法庭,但這宗案馬哈迪勝訴)嗣后1988 年在向報界談話的幾個不同場合,他一再影射這 項判決,譬如:
「但是法官推翻了這一點(指移民條例中 外國人可短暫居留的年期,以及部長可以做最后 的決定之規定),這是個很著名的案件,那個人 后來被准許繼續居留,而部長卻無能為力。」又 如:
「我們並不想當法官。法官詮釋國會所訂立 的法律,而不是像現時那樣訂立自己的法律。」
這裡除卻上邊提到的司法系統獨立自主的 釋法權之外,還提出了另兩個爭議點,其一是 「法官自己立法」,具體所指是阿都卡迪所用 的「自然公正」,(馬哈迪所謂的『unwritten laws』)這其實就是普通法(不成文法)的美妙 之處,這個優點正好可以避免只依循成文法,然 而明顯造成冤案的陷阱;其二是「部長的決定是 最后而不可挑戰的」這個概念,質言之申訴人不 能要求法庭檢討一名政府部長的決定,執政系統 因此不能受到司法系統的監督和制約,如此即打 破了三權分立的平衡均勢,並衍生出專制的政治 局面。
在1987年之前,馬來西亞司法系統的終審庭 是英國的樞密院(Privy Council),那年政府改 組法庭體系,成立聯邦法院取代最高法庭,並作 為終審庭,截斷了重大案件一路上訴到英國的管 道。另一方面,此后的一系列立法計劃都加強 執政系統的宰制權,規定部長的決定至高無上, 不受法庭檢討,這就是法律術語所說的Ouster Clauses(除外條款)。
1987年12月馬哈迪政府又遭受短暫挫折, 《激流月刊》(Aliran Monthly)的母體社團 控告內政部長,要求政府發准證讓它印行馬來文 版,高庭法官哈侖不理會1984年印刷與出版法令 內的「除外條款」,要求政府接受「自然公正」 法則,發馬來文版准證給Aliran。(高庭判決后 來被最高法庭推翻。)
1987年4月巫統黨選,東姑拉沙里夥同慕沙 希旦挑戰馬哈迪,結果以微差失敗,嗣后十一 名黨員以巫統各州有30個無注冊支部為由入稟高 庭,要求判選舉無效,1988年1月高庭法官哈侖聆 審后宣判巫統為非法團體,對馬來人政治帶來極 大沖擊,也使國內政治局勢陷入混亂之中。東姑 和胡申翁等人申請注冊UMNO Malaysia不果,馬哈 迪閃電注冊新巫統(UMNO Baru)並接管原巫統黨 機器,后來索性把Baru這條尾巴砍掉。那批11名 巫統黨員向最高法庭提出上訴,最高法庭主席沙 禮阿峇斯(Tun Salleh Abbas)指示,1988年6月 13日全部法官參與九司會審。有一種說法,認為 當時公共輿論已明顯對馬哈迪和A隊不利,因此如 果九司會審判決重新投票,A隊的處境相當危殆; 當時輿論是否對A隊不利,在一個媒體受到嚴密管 制的社會裡,是不容易確證的,但是馬哈迪對司 法獨立原則的攻擊卻是昭然若揭,法庭當然不會 藉機「報復」,然而如果馬哈迪有此隱憂似乎也 不是太匪夷所思的事。
接下來的一連串事故,把國家一步步推向 史無前例而又影響深遠的1988年司法危機,沙禮 修函給最高元首匯報司法系統和執政系統之間關 係的最新情況,最終造成三位最高法庭法官被解 職,從此司法系統進入「萬馬齊瘖」的局面。現 在人權委員會主席阿布達立(司法危機時期的總 檢察長)說政府應檢討「部長的決定無可挑戰」 的法律條款,律師公會會長楊映波和冤案主敦沙 禮也都挺身出來說1988年的司法危機應該重開檢 視以便翻案,此時回顧一下我們今天信譽並不很 高的司法機關如何一步步走來,應該是不無意義 的事吧。
东方日报 總主筆:張景雲 17/9/2006
20:40 Posted in Politic | Permalink | Comments (0) | Email this | Tags: Malaysia, Mahathir, judiciary
Thursday, August 31, 2006
也談華教運動的內憂──動員能力與文化格局
一、拜漢語熱潮的假象所賜,年輕華人不再認為華教面對艱鉅的挑戰;二、華教的價值和意義對年輕人而言已逐漸糢糊;三、年輕華人知識份子對上述課題已感厭煩,不認為可以得出任何新的觀點和結論。或許有更複雜的理由或微妙的議程不鼓勵年輕華人和知識份子出席上述活動,可是只要上述幾種可能性能夠成立,即證實了主講人之一李萬千對華人對于華教「居危而不自知」的深切憂慮。受華文教育薰陶的華人子弟對華教未來發展要不「居安不思危」,要不對華教的「鬥爭」方式意興闌珊(屬筆者個人猜測),恐怕對華教而言都是嚴重的內憂。
李萬千認為英語教數理的實施動搖了華教的根基─ ─華小,而華社卻沒有危機感,筆者以為后一句有待證實。英語教數理實施后,許多華小、印小和國小家長其實都感受到了孩子既無法有效學習數理,又沒能提高英文水平的副作用;可是那么多關心子女教育的家長為何長期以來對問題只會在私底下「碎碎念」,而無法參與反對英語教數理的活動,更妄論主動發起反對運動?
董教總動員力量的弱化也許是部份原因。可是同樣面對英化數理弊端的馬來社會和印裔社會,也許還包括各原住民族群,為何也不見任何動員反對的力量?那只能歸咎于民主教育不普及和長久以來徹底依賴政黨政治來解決問題的頑疾所賜。董教總于今年年初舉辦的反對英化數理大會,獲得若干馬來族群組織和印裔團體的支持,其實證明了這是一個可以進行跨族群合作的最佳時機;可惜不僅董教總沒有后續的跟進,各族群的代表組織也沒有積極的展開群眾動員的工作。
馬來民族主義狂飆的年代裡,巫統宣稱自己代表馬來人的權益,馬華和國大黨亦聲稱捍衛各自族群的權益。可是粗糙的族群政治早已過時,所有大馬人和關心子女教育和文化的家長都已認識到,今天的馬華無法代表華人的權益,巫統也沒有代表馬來人利益的合法性基礎(偏偏它們製造的新聞占據著媒體的主要版面,而媒體也不懂拒絕政治秀)。依此類推,那些自稱捍衛某族群利益的政黨實際上只是在盜用族群的名義,瓜分執政派系的權力和利益。
以這樣的認識為基礎,想解決英語教數理的問題就不能再依賴國陣成員黨的內部協商,甚至也不能過于依賴類似董教總的族群代表(讀者別斷章取義)。董教總當然仍然在道義上擁有代表維護華教權益的合法性,可是當該組織動員民間的力量或許因為行政臃腫、內部矛盾等原因而弱化時,民間就不能老是以等待救星的態度,期待代表來動員。一切社會變革的力量只能來自民間,而揭發校長貪污事件作了一次有啟發性的示範(不代表其間所有的行動都沒有爭議性)。
英化數理的真正受害者是千千萬萬的子女,目睹整個受害過程的則是愛護各母語教育和族群文化的家長。他們理應生氣,更應將悲憤化為自救的力量,看清楚蠶食教育和文化的暴政是不看膚色和族群的。多少鄉村的馬來孩子在忍受該政策的弊端,如果要使用帶強烈民族情緒的措詞,這項由前首相作出的草率決定,大概屬于馬來人的「叛徒」(pengkianat)之列了。可是民族主義是個投機份子,大概只有政客才懂得用它來動員群眾的情緒。
鄧章欽適時的提出了華教究竟要辦的是語文教育還是文化教育的疑問。今天普遍上受華文教育者的華文水平和文化程度並不理想,乃不爭的事實。遠的不談,以筆者自己的經驗為例,頗能說明華教的弱點。大學畢業時仍看不懂許多文言文、叫不出普渡祭品的名堂、辨認不出華人廟宇的建築格局和構件、解讀不出墓碑、匾額、香爐、符咒上的文字意義、不了解華人節慶和道教儀式的各種符號和象征意義。還有大馬華人移民史、和其他族群的交流史、各鄉村城鎮的地方史等等。
筆者相信無論是華小、獨中還是華社民辦的學院,都沒有將上述大部份文化知識列為教材。弔詭的是,如果華教的產品-即華校生的文化解讀能力薄弱到無法正確解讀自己的「民族」文化;那么我們常呼喊的民族教育究竟具備什么實質的文化內涵?許多華團可以不斷擴充產業並花費鉅款舉辦不痛不癢的聯誼活動和尋根之旅,卻不願資助一些民間學者進行實實在在「真正的華社研究」,多少反映了當前華社領導人的文化格局,大抵上沒超越白手起家的先輩們太多。
或許可以阿Q一番的是,受國文教育洗禮的馬來畢業生對傳統馬來文化的了解想必也相當薄弱。馬來人不了解其文化和印度文化及梵文的淵源是司空見慣的事,不知道清真寺和傳統馬來高腳屋的建築特色、無法掌握爪夷文等,也是馬來青年的通病。所以國文教育也是不折不扣的失敗的「民族教育」。然而,由于國家權力的介入,馬來人的文化不盡然是靠「傳承」下來而是靠「建構」出來的。
行文至此,課題變得相當有趣了,華教面對的社會動員和文化教育薄弱的內憂不也是馬來族群教育所面對的問題嗎?當然,華教還得面對同化政策的外患。可是僅就上述共同點而言,華教和其他母語源流教育(包括國文教育)實際上處于相同的陣線上。換言之,如果還要「鬥爭」,華教不再是孤軍作戰,舉國上下,堅持和發揚族群文化特色的族群都是華教的盟友。只是不知道在趕華文熱浪潮的華社領袖、族群代表和民間是否已有所準備?
Oriental Daily
周澤南
30/8/2006
21:48 Posted in Politic | Permalink | Comments (0) | Email this | Tags: Chinese ethnicity, Malaysia
Friday, May 19, 2006
新加坡政治正起變化
人民行動黨的得票率從上屆的7 5 . 2 9%,減少了 8.69%,但考慮到2001大選時新加坡面對經濟不景和恐怖 主義威脅的雙重打擊,才在危城下的選戰創造了高得票 率,難以跟回歸基本面的本屆大選相比。這次的六成六 得票和只失兩席,可說是不過不失,但對人民行動黨而 言,特別是首次領軍迎戰的李顯龍來說,只能守成卻沒 有驚喜,則意味著不算個人勝利。
首先,兩個長期由反對黨贏得的單選區,儘管選前 執政黨宣佈1億8000萬新幣的社區撥款,但選民不為所 動,不只未能收復,反而讓反對黨兩員宿將以更大的得 票率蟬聯。
前輩領導權威籠罩
其次,李顯龍在宏茂橋集選區,以堂堂總理之尊佈 陣,得票僅達66.13%,比人民行動黨的整體得票率還稍 為遜色,特別是工人黨派出的競選隊伍,多是名不經傳 的二、三線年輕人,其中一人還是在巴黎流浪兩年之后 返國在碼頭開小酒店的年輕女生!在7個有競選的集選區 中,宏茂橋獲勝得票率只居第5位,有4個內閣同僚帶領 的團隊得票率比李顯龍出色。
三來,就是反對黨的策略成功,喚起部分選民的熱 情與參與,工人黨派出的候選人素質大體優秀,競選時 謹慎節制,減少被執政黨捉住痛腳追打的局面,例如在 阿裕尼集選區,就予執政黨甚多壓力。
對李顯龍而言,還有一個久存不去的問題,就是 如何走出家父長輩的保護。這是一場三代總理同台登場 的選舉,預料選后的內閣也會保留三代同堂。李光耀與 蘇哈多、馬哈迪是同一時代人物,年過80,仍然出來競 選,加上吳作棟也同樣連任國會議員,給人印象是對新 一代領導層的不安心、放不下的印象。這對李顯龍為首 的內閣團隊形成陰影,令他們無法真正開創自己的風格 與理念。這次選舉,作為新總理,李顯龍並無為新加坡 政經發展提出新的戰略與論述。
李顯龍團隊求守成
表面上新加坡政治順利完成世代交替,但依舊籠 罩在上一輩領導權威的觀念意識中,難以出現典範的 轉移,這不只是攸關李顯龍個人自尊的隱患,也令新加 坡國人疑惑,其結果是逐漸導致青年選民求變的不耐心 理。選前李光耀在一場與青年人對話的電視節目中,面 對受過良好教育的新生代直率尖銳的提問,老經驗的李 光耀當然可以招架,但播出后仍然令不少傳統行動黨人 驚訝。徐順全的代表律師就在群眾大會上,直接表達要 李光耀退休的訴求。
從競選結果看來,選前一度令執政黨擔心的「青年 反叛」似乎沒有出現,但當下新加坡選民中,包括候選 人,相當部分是1965年獨立后出生的,對現存的政治與 治理模式並非沒有意見。加上全球化與互聯網的衝擊, 新加坡的公民社會也蓄勢待發,如果李顯龍領導下的政 府團隊只求守成,而無力應對新加坡的內外變局,不能 創新治理的典範,則該國政治環境將會在沉悶之中產生 變化。
這種正在寂靜中起變化的政治,從近期新加坡反對 黨的逐漸蛻變可以看來出來。本屆大選反對黨打破過去 幾屆沿用的「補選策略」,不讓人民行動黨在提名當日 重新執政,創造一次有競選的選戰。工人黨的策略與主 張最有務實意義,它的競選口號是「您有選擇」,不只 是選民要有替代性的選擇,也要有投票的選擇。過去因 反對黨放棄在許多選區競選,一些選民已經好幾屆連去 投票的權利都被政黨「剝奪」。為此,工人黨甚至派出 敢死隊到李顯龍的集選區挑戰,用以証明選民有選擇總 理的權利,結果成功拉走近5萬票。
工人黨表現佳崛起
新加坡反對黨向來反對集選區制度,要求恢復單一 選區制,但這次工人黨的策略,則是希望以贏得一個集 選區,來否定這個選制,用意是向行動黨証明集選區未 必是保障席次的安全做法,因此集中重兵,包括由黨主 席林瑞蓮和著名社運人士戈麥斯(James Gomez)組隊,競 選阿裕尼集選區,成為本次的焦點戰役。行動黨不敢掉 以輕心,從選戰開打就集合火力,批評心腹大患戈麥斯 提名前的一個技術錯誤,上升為「騙子」的人格攻擊, 直到后期擔心引起選民反感才轉向。
工人黨雖沒有拿下這個集選區,但得票衝至43.9% 也算有收穫,讓林瑞蓮得以用最高落選票數成為非選區 議員進入國會,也補充工人黨的新血。這次工人黨沉著 應戰,沒有擦槍走火,避免選后成為執政黨以法律抄家 的犧牲品,它成功招攬不少高學歷精英成為候選人,表 現搶眼,崛起為第一大反對黨,未來可能對中產階級更 具吸引力。務實穩健的秘書長劉程強可記一大功。
反而詹時中年過70,他領導的民主聯盟組織鬆散, 其選區也后繼乏人。行動黨本想以他的年齡作話題,但 看到李家老帥還出征,只好噤聲不說了。至于徐順全的 民主黨,以新加坡的標準而言過于激進,他本人這回破 產不得參選,選前又被李光耀一紙律師信搞得黨內人仰 馬翻,還幾乎傳出被罷免。民主黨本屆參選者都只得二 成多的選票,未來困境重重。
新加坡在人民行動黨執政下,創造不少動人的成功 故事,但是治理模式也日益受到懷疑。近期美國《時代 週刊》評選李顯龍與何晶是最具影響力的夫妻檔之一, 這個第一家庭關起門來真可以「家事國事天下事,事事 關心」。何晶掌管的淡馬錫控股有權無責,工人黨競選 宣言就強調國營企業和政聯公司必須透明化,若加上資 訊管制、新聞壟斷、法家式治理,新加坡乾淨得有點蒼 白的父權社會,限制創意(包括中小企業成長),其模式 只能依靠賢人,而非付託與分權的制度。
在強人的嚴苛監管下,人民行動黨只能培植出行政 高級人材,但缺乏有氣魄的政治家,這恰恰正是李光耀 放心不下的大事,也令越來越多年輕專業精英意識到新 加坡政治體制極為可慮的面向,為變化提供了可能。這 回的選舉,年輕精英與務實反對黨的應時奮起,正好為 新加坡政治經歷著的雖然緩慢卻是持續變化留下一記註 腳。新加坡人不笨,但缺少勇氣,只好把自己裝扮得很 柔順,不是不求變,而是害怕付出代價。
作者:潘永強 8/5/2006
23:48 Posted in Politic | Permalink | Comments (0) | Email this
Saturday, June 04, 2005
Debating Islam
WHEN Robert Zoellick, America's deputy secretary of state, recently described Malaysia as a potential model for fledgling democratic regimes in other Muslim places like Iraq and Palestine, he was not, presumably, referring to its Islamic police. In an infamous episode earlier this year, officers of Kuala Lumpur's religious department raided a nightclub, arrested some 100 patrons for ungodly acts such as consuming alcohol and dressing immodestly, and carted them off in paddy-wagons. The episode, although unusual, highlighted how many Islamic strictures remain on the books—and how uncomfortable that makes many Malaysians.
“We are a very moderate Islamic country,” Abdullah Badawi, the prime minister, recently declared. On the whole, he is right. Although Muslims are in the majority, and Islam is the official religion, large Buddhist, Christian and Hindu minorities are free to worship as they please. The government, which includes many non-Muslims, tends to concentrate more on the economy than on matters of morality. Kuala Lumpur, in particular, is a cosmopolitan and tolerant place, where the sexes mingle freely, and profane items such as pork and alcohol are in plentiful supply.
Yet religion remains an awkward subject in Malaysia. Malay Muslims have lived in the area and practised Islam for centuries. During the colonial period, however, large numbers of Chinese and Indians, non-Muslims for the most part, settled in the country. The authors of Malaysia's constitution tried to strike a balance between Malays, who felt that they and their religion should enjoy pre-eminent status in their traditional homeland, and minorities, who were worried that they would become second-class citizens. The result is a document that guarantees individual freedoms, while according Islam a special status. Muslims, for example, can proselytise freely, whereas non-Muslims cannot attempt to convert Muslims. Muslims also have their own, Islamic court system to adjudicate in matters of personal law, while non-Muslims are consigned to the normal, secular courts.
Non-Muslims gripe that the government spends too much money building mosques and promoting Islam. They also claim that the Malays who dominate the bureaucracy sometimes make life difficult for them, by withholding the permits needed to open a new temple, say, or by obstructing the import of religious tracts. In 2003, for instance, over-zealous officials attempted to ban a translation of the Bible into an indigenous language of eastern Malaysia—although Mr Badawi rescinded the order a few weeks later.
But there are also many Muslim critics of Malaysia's Islamic justice system. Muslim women's groups were up in arms in 2002, when the government of the state of Perlis made it easier for Muslim men to take a second wife, by scrapping a rule requiring the first's consent. Over the years, state governments (which have authority over matters of religion) have expanded the scope of Muslim personal law beyond questions of marriage and inheritance, in order to curry favour with Islamically minded voters. Most have enacted laws banning Muslims from drinking alcohol, and other forms of “indecent behaviour”.
It was on the basis of such a law that Kuala Lumpur's religious officers raided Zouk nightclub in January, and arrested the Muslim patrons while allowing non-Muslims to go free. The city's well-to-do Muslims, unaccustomed to government interference in their private lives, kicked up a stink, as did the local media. Amid all the furore, angry Muslim moderates turned up all manner of intrusive state laws, barring Muslims from expressing deviant views, contradicting religious leaders and even smoking. They demanded that the government should review all these laws, and scrap those that infringed on their constitutional freedoms.
The government's response to this outcry has been ambiguous. It did issue new regulations trimming the powers of the religious officers. It is also encouraging Malaysia's 14 states to adopt a uniform Islamic code. But in general, the ruling United Malays National Organisation is reluctant to hand the Pan-Malaysia Islamic Party (PAS), its chief rival for Malay votes, any opportunity to denounce it as un-Islamic. Wan Ahmad Farid Wan Salleh, an adviser to the prime minister on religious matters, cannot even bring himself to reject outright the idea of an Islamic criminal code, complete with amputated hands. He argues instead that the time is not right.
Meanwhile, Mr Badawi is trying to shift the focus of the debate by promoting an alternative vision of Islam, which he calls “Islam Hadhari”, or civilisational Islam. It stresses the moral value of education, economic development, and protection of minorities, as a counterweight to PAS's narrow emphasis on dogma. “You can be cosmopolitan and Islamic at the same time,” insists Mr Wan Farid. Moreover, he says, Muslims who stray from the faith should be brought into line by persuasion, rather than coercion.
Civil libertarians, however, dismiss Islam Hadhari as an attempt to fudge the issue. What about those Muslims who do not want to be brought into line, asks Malik Imtiaz Sarwar, a lawyer. He points to several cases involving Muslims who seek to convert to other religions. Islamic courts label them apostates and pack them off to rehabilitation camps. But the civil courts have so far avoided ruling on whether the constitution's guarantee of freedom of religion extends to Muslims seeking to leave their faith. That, Mr Imtiaz argues, is too controversial an issue for judges or politicians to tackle—even in model Malaysia.
Jun 2nd 2005 | KUALA LUMPUR
From The Economist print edition
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